MALARIA Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosqu...


MALARIA




Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. People who have malaria usually feel very sick, with a high fever and shaking chills

 

Causes:-




Malaria is caused by a type of microscopic parasite. The parasite is transmitted to humans most commonly through mosquito bites.


Mosquito transmission cycle



Uninfected mosquito. 
Transmission of parasite
In the liver. 
Into the bloodstream
On to the next person. 
From mother to unborn child
Through blood transfusions
By sharing needles used to inject drugs

Symptoms

Fever
Chills
Headache
Nausea and vomiting
Muscle pain and fatigue
Other signs and symptoms may include:
Sweating
Chest or abdominal pain
Cough

Risk factors:-

The biggest risk factor for developing malaria is to live in or to visit areas where the disease is common. There are many different varieties of malaria parasites.

·         African countries south of the Sahara Desert

·         The Asian subcontinent

·         New Guinea, the Dominican Republic and Haiti

Diagnosis:-


The presence of the parasite in the blood, to confirm that you have malaria

Treatment:-

Medication


The most common antimalarial drugs include:

Artemisinin-based combination therapies
Chloroquine phosphate
Combination of atovaquone and proguanil (Malarone)
Quinine sulfate (Qualaquin) with doxycycline (Vibramycin, Monodox, others)
Mefloquine
Primaquine phosphate
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TYPHOID Typhoid is a bacterial infection that can lead to a high fever, diarrhea, and vomiting. It can be fatal. It is caused b...


TYPHOID




Typhoid is a bacterial infection that can lead to a high fever, diarrhea, and vomiting. It can be fatal. It is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi. The infection is often passed on through contaminated food and drinking water, and it is more prevalent in places where hand-washing is less frequent. The bacterium lives in the intestines and bloodstream of humans. It spreads between individuals by direct contact with the feces of an infected person.

Causes:-




·       Typhoid is caused by the bacteria S. typhi and spread through food, drinks, and drinking water that are contaminated with infected fecal matter. Washing fruit and vegetables can spread it, if contaminated water is used.




·       Some people are asymptomatic carriers of typhoid, meaning that they harbor the bacteria but suffer no ill effects. Others continue to harbor the bacteria after their symptoms have gone. Sometimes, the disease can appear again.

·       People who test positive as carriers may not be allowed to work with children or older people until medical tests show that they are clear.

Diagnosis:-


·       A diagnosis of typhoid fever can usually be confirmed by analysing samples of blood, poo (stools) or pee (urine).

·       These will be examined under a microscope for the Salmonella typhi bacteria that cause the condition.

·       The bacteria aren't always detected the first time, so you may need to have a series of tests.

·       Testing a sample of bone marrow is a more accurate way of diagnosing typhoid fever.

·       But getting the sample is both time-consuming and painful, so it's usually only used if other tests are inconclusive.

·       If typhoid fever is confirmed, other members of your household may also need to be tested in case you have passed the infection on to them.

 

Treatment:-


·       The only effective treatment for typhoid is antibiotics. The most commonly used are ciprofloxacin (for non-pregnant adults) and ceftriaxone.

·       Other than antibiotics, it is important to re-hydrate by drinking adequate water.

·       In more severe cases, where the bowel has become perforated, surgery may be required.

 


Prevention:-


·       Typhoid is spread by contact and ingestion of infected human feces. This can happen through an infected water source or when handling food.

·       The following are some general rules to follow when traveling to help minimize the chance of typhoid infection:

·       Drink bottled water, preferably carbonated.

·       If bottled water cannot be sourced, ensure water is heated on a rolling boil for at least one minute before consuming.

·       Be wary of eating anything that has been handled by someone else.

·       Avoid eating at street food stands, and only eat food that is still hot.

·       Do not have ice in drinks.

·       Avoid raw fruit and vegetables, peel fruit yourself, and do not eat the peel.
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JAUNDICE Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin, mucous membranes, and the(bulbar conjunctiva)  whites of the eyes cau...


JAUNDICE




Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin, mucous membranes, and the(bulbar conjunctiva)  whites of the eyes caused by increased amounts of bilirubin in the body.

Causes:-




·       Junk food

·       Contaminated food and water

·       An inflamed liver or obstructed bile duct can lead to jaundice, as well as other underlying conditions

·       Inflammation(swelling) of the liver

·        Inflammation(swelling) of the bile duct

·        Obstruction of the bile duct

·        Hemolytic anemia(It is a blood disorder in which red blood cells are destroyed faster than they can be made.)

·        Gilbert's syndrome(Gilbert Syndrome is a mild genetic disorder in which the liver does not properly process a substance called bilirubin)

·        Cholestasis(Cholestasis is reduction or stoppage of bile flow)

·        Dubin-Johnson syndrome(It is an inherited form of chronic jaundice that prevents conjugated bilirubin from being secreted from of the cells of the liver)


Symptoms:-





a yellow discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes, normally starting at the head and spreading down the body
pale stools
dark urine
itchiness
fatigue
abdominal pain
weight loss
vomiting
fever
pale stools
dark urine
 

Types:-


Hepatocellular jaundice( liver's inability to metabolize and excrete bilirubin leading to a buildup of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood.)

Hemolytic jaundice( an accelerated breakdown of red blood cells, leading to an increase in production of bilirubin)

Obstructive jaundice(jaundice resulting from blockage of the bile ducts or abnormal retention of bile in the liver.)

Complications:-


·         The itching that accompanies jaundice can sometimes be so intense that patients have been known to scratch their skin raw, experience insomnia, or, in extreme cases, even have thoughts of suicide.

Diagnosis:-


Bilirubin tests

Full blood count (FBC), or complete blood count (CBC)

Hepatitis A, B, and C tests
·         In case of any obstruction.they will use imaging tests, including MRI, CT, ultrasound scans and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). This is a procedure combining endoscopy and X-ray imaging.

·         A liver biopsy can check for inflammation, cirrhosis, cancer, and fatty liver.

 


Treatment:-


Anemia-induced jaundice may be treated by boosting the amount of iron in the blood by either taking iron supplements or eating more iron-rich foods.

Hepatitis-induced jaundice requires antiviral or steroid medications.

Doctors can treat obstruction-induced jaundice by surgically removing the obstruction.

If the jaundice has been caused by use of a medication, treatment for involves changing to an alternative medication.
 

 

Which doctor should be consult :-


·       Physician
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CHICKEN POX It is one of the serious disease in neonates(new born baby), immunocompromised(weak immunity), pregnant women an...


CHICKEN POX





It is one of the serious disease in neonates(new born baby), immunocompromised(weak immunity), pregnant women and even healthy adults.It is a viral disease.

Caused:-


·      Varicella zoster virus

Features:-





·      Mild to moderate fever

·      Malaise(Malaise is a feeling of general discomfort, uneasiness, or pain)

·      Headache

·      Anorexia(An eating disorder causing people to obsess about weight and what they eat.)

·      Rash

·      Hyper-pigmented macules(Areas of discoloration that are less than 1 cm)

Complications:-


·      Secondary bacterial infection

·      Necrotizing fasciitis(an infection that results in the death of parts of the body's soft tissue)

·      Meningoencephalitis(focal accumulations of a mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate in the meninges and brain)

·      Acute cerebellar ataxia(sudden, uncoordinated muscle movement due to disease or injury to the cerebellum)

·      Transverse Myelitis( An inflammation of both sides of one section of the spinal cord.)

·      LGB syndrome(A condition in which the immune system attacks the nerves.)

Diagnosis:-


·      Tzanck test

·      Presence of anit IgM antibodies to varicella

Treatment:-


·      antihistamine (these are drugs which treat allergies ) to relieve itching

·      The disease is allowed to run its course.

 


Prevention:-


·      VZIG(Varicella zoster immune globulin)


Whom to consult :-


·      General physician
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HEART FAILURE Heart failure describes the clinical syndrome that develops when the heart cannot maintain adequate output, o...



HEART FAILURE




Heart failure describes the clinical syndrome that develops when the heart cannot maintain adequate output, or can do so only at the expense of elevated ventricular filling pressure. 

In mild to moderate forms of heart failure, cardiac output is normal at rest and only becomes impaired when the metabolic demand increases during exercise or some other form of stress.

Cause:-


·       MI

·       Myocarditis/ cardiomyopathy

·       Progressive ventricular dilatation

·       Hypertension,

·       aortic stenosis

·       Pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary valve

·       stenosis

·       Mitral stenosis

·       Ventricular septal defect

·       Arrhythmia

·       Cardiac tamponade

·       Pulmonary embolism

Types of heart failure


Left, right and biventricular heart failure


The left side of the heart comprises the functional unit of the LA and LV, together with the mitral and aortic valves; the right heart comprises the RA, RV, and tricuspid and pulmonary valves.

• Left-sided heart failure. There is a reduction in left ventricular output and an increase in left atrial and pulmonary venous pressure. An acute increase in left atrial pressure causes pulmonary congestion or pulmonary oedema; a more gradual increase in left atrial pressure, as occurs with mitral stenosis, leads to reflex pulmonary vasoconstriction, which protects the patient from pulmonary oedema. This increases pulmonary vascular resistance and causes pulmonary hypertension, which can, in turn, impair right ventricular function.

• Right-sided heart failure. There is a reduction in right ventricular output and an increase in right atrial and systemic venous pressure. Causes of isolated right heart failure include chronic lung disease , pulmonary embolism and pulmonary valvular stenosis.

• Biventricular heart failure. Failure of the left and right heart may develop because the disease process, such as dilated cardiomyopathy or ischaemic heart disease, affects both ventricles or because disease of the left heart leads to chronic elevation of the left atrial pressure, pulmonary hypertension and right heart failure.

Symptoms:-


·         Shortness of breath (dyspnea) when you exert yourself or when you lie down

·         Fatigue and weakness

·         Swelling (edema) in your legs, ankles and feet

·         Rapid or irregular heartbeat

·         Reduced ability to exercise

·         Persistent cough or wheezing with white or pink blood-tinged phlegm

·         Increased need to urinate at night

·         Swelling of your abdomen (ascites)

·         Very rapid weight gain from fluid retention

·         Lack of appetite and nausea

·         Difficulty concentrating or decreased alertness

·         Sudden, severe shortness of breath and coughing up pink, foamy mucus

·         Chest pain if your heart failure is caused by a heart attack

When to see a doctor:-





·         Chest pain

·         Fainting or severe weakness

·         Rapid or irregular heartbeat associated with shortness of breath, chest pain or fainting

·         Sudden, severe shortness of breath and coughing up pink, foamy mucus


Complications:-


·       Renal failure

·       Hypokalaemia

·       Hyperkalaemia

·       Hyponatraemia

·       Impaired liver function

·       Thromboembolism

Diagnosis


·       Serum urea, creatinine and electrolytes, haemoglobin,

·       thyroid function test

·       ECG

·       chest X-ray

·       Brain natriureticpeptide (BNP) is elevated in heart failure and is a markerof risk

·       Echocardiography

·       identify patients with long-term drug therapy[ace inhibitors]


Management of heart failure Education


• Explanation of nature of disease, treatment and self-help strategies

 Diet


• Good general nutrition and weight reduction for the obese

• Avoidance of high-salt foods and added salt, especially for patients with severe congestive heart failure

Alcohol


• Moderation or elimination of alcohol consumption. Alcohol induced cardiomyopathy requires abstinence

Smoking




• Cessation

Exercise


• Regular moderate aerobic exercise within limits of symptoms

Vaccination


• Consider influenza and pneumococcal vaccination

Risk factors:-


·         High blood pressure. Your heart works harder than it has to if your blood pressure is high.

·         Coronary artery disease. Narrowed arteries may limit your heart's supply of oxygen-rich blood, resulting in weakened heart muscle.

·         Heart attack. A heart attack is a form of coronary disease that occurs suddenly. Damage to your heart muscle from a heart attack may mean your heart can no longer pump as well as it should.

·         Diabetes. Having diabetes increases your risk of high blood pressure and coronary artery disease.

·         Some diabetes medications. The diabetes drugs rosiglitazone (Avandia) and pioglitazone (Actos) have been found to increase the risk of heart failure in some people. Don't stop taking these medications on your own, though. If you're taking them, discuss with your doctor whether you need to make any changes.

·         Certain medications. Some medications may lead to heart failure or heart problems. Medications that may increase the risk of heart problems include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs); certain anesthesia medications; some anti-arrhythmic medications; certain medications used to treat high blood pressure, cancer, blood conditions, neurological conditions, psychiatric conditions, lung conditions, urological conditions, inflammatory conditions and infections; and other prescription and over-the-counter medications.

Don't stop taking any medications on your own. If you have questions about medications you're taking, discuss with your doctor whether he or she recommends any changes.

·         Sleep apnea. The inability to breathe properly while you sleep at night results in low blood oxygen levels and increased risk of abnormal heart rhythms. Both of these problems can weaken the heart.

·         Congenital heart defects. Some people who develop heart failure were born with structural heart defects.

·         Valvular heart disease. People with valvular heart disease have a higher risk of heart failure.

·         Viruses. A viral infection may have damaged your heart muscle.

·         Alcohol use. Drinking too much alcohol can weaken heart muscle and lead to heart failure.

·         Tobacco use. Using tobacco can increase your risk of heart failure.

·         Obesity. People who are obese have a higher risk of developing heart failure.

·         Irregular heartbeats. These abnormal rhythms, especially if they are very frequent and fast, can weaken the heart muscle and cause heart failure.

 

 

Which doctor should be consulted  :-

·       Cardiologist
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Ankle sprain Ankle sprain is a type of injury in which the ligaments that connect bones  together are partially or completely to...



Ankle sprain




Ankle sprain is a type of injury in which the ligaments that connect bones  together are partially or completely torn and there are several ligaments in the ankle that can be injured, but by far the most common are the ligaments that connect the fibula (shin bone), calcaneus (heel  bone) and talus  (foot bone).

Types of ankle sprain:-


Ankle sprain can be classified into three grades




Grade I  

: partial tear Mild tenderness and swelling of a ligament Slight or no functional loss

 Grade II

 incomplete tear of Moderate pain and swelling a ligament, with Mild to moderate ecchymosis moderate functional Tenderness over involved structures impairment Some loss of motion and function 

Grade III

complete tear and severe swelling


Causes:-





·         A fall that can causes your ankle to twist.

·         Landing awkwardly on your foot after jumping or pivoting also cause.

·         Walking or exercising on an uneven surface.

·         Another person stepping or landing on your foot during a sports activity also cause sprain

Diagnosis:-


·       X-ray

·       Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

·       CT scan

·       Ultrasound

Treatment:-




 R.I.C.E. approach for the first two or three days:

  •   Rest. Avoid activities that cause pain, swelling or discomfort.

  •  Ice. Use an ice pack or ice slush bath immediately for 15 to 20 minutes and repeat every two to three hours while you're awake. If you have vascular disease, diabetes or decreased sensation, talk with your doctor before applying ice.

  •  Compression. To help stop swelling, compress the ankle with an elastic bandage until the swelling stops. Don't hinder circulation by wrapping too tightly. Begin wrapping at the end farthest from your heart.

  • Elevation. To reduce swelling, elevate your ankle above the level of your heart, especially at night. Gravity helps reduce swelling by draining excess fluid.

 

 Medications:-


  •  Pain relievers

  •  Assistive Devices

  •  Physiotherapy

  •  Surgery:- Repair a ligament that won't heal Reconstruct a ligament with tissue from a nearby ligament or tendon.

Risk factors:-


·         Sports participation

·         Uneven surfaces 

·         Prior ankle injury

·         Poor physical condition

·         Improper shoes

Complications:-


·       Chronic ankle pain

·       Chronic ankle joint instability

·       Arthritis in the ankle joint

Prevention:-


·         Warm up before you exercise or play sports.

·         Be careful when walking, running or working on an uneven surface.

·         Use an ankle support brace or tape on a weak or previously injured ankle.

·         Wear shoes that fit well and are made for your activity.

·         Minimize wearing high-heeled shoes.

·         Maintain good muscle strength and flexibility.
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